They come down to the question of whether African Americans should envision themselves and their communities as race-specific or generically American. Traditionally,strong racial or ethnic identities have developed among members of oppressed groups, sometimes based on the very things that are used against them by racists. On the other hand, strong racial identities among disadvantaged groups may prevent young people from aspiring to and achieving success in a dominant white society. Beyond these pragmatic concerns is a current consensus that all social and psychological racial identities are socially constructed, rather than biologically determined.